June -- History and Futures

The first stage in a Futures Workshop is a general discussion of the History surrounding the entity under review. This entity could be an industry, organization, or position. Futures Studies is intended to be applicable across a wide variety of themes, beginning with a structurally flexible framework that can be molded to fit the needs of the study.

The Beijing 2008: One World, One Dream. Whose? blog site is intended to be such a study, focused on analyzing the various visions of the future that surface at the XXIX Olympiad. In order to properly frame much of this analysis, an overview of the context in which this analysis takes place is necessary.

In July, this blog will embark upon a structured analysis of the current trends within the People's Republic of China. During this month we will focus our attention on economic, political, social, technological, and theoretical trends currently at hand in the PRC. However, in order to properly understand how these trends have emerged, and how they can be interpreted, a brief glance at China's rich 5000 year history is necessary. The month of June is intended to be just that: A 30-day recap of the Chinese history.

Striving for objectivity, all comments, suggestions, or criticism in these efforts, are welcome, and it is hoped that you continue to read throughout July and August for another view of the One Dream Games, the People's Republic of China, and our collective Futures.


Thanks!!!!

Post-Mao in the PRC (People's Republic of China)

Deng Xiaoping

Mao's death tempered the cult of personality that enveloped the man, and the Communist Party of China (CPC) for nearly 30 years. When the political dust had finally settled in 1979, one of Mao's strongest rivals, Deng Xiaoping, had consolidated a powerful cadre intent on the nurturing of a modern China to blossom. Economic reform and an outreach to the international community are widely regarded as the legacy that Deng Xiaoping has left on the People's Republic of China (PRC).

The economic reform platform promoted by Deng was based on four key sectors: Agriculture, Industry, Science and Technology, and the Military. By reforming the economy as a "socialist capitalist economy," a newly structured series of state-owned enterprises, often built from the local level upwards, was made possible. By encouraging local arms of the government to act in their own best interest and share profitable plans with the nation at large, economic development first built a strong foundation on which to reach upwards.

Deng Xiaopeng was also very active in building positive relations with the international community. This new policy of openness, coupled with the Special Economic Zones (SEZs), channeled vast amounts of foreign investment into China's developing economy. New trade partnerships, and a policy of increasing transparency helped to establish China on the world stage. Additionally, he helped to negotiate the peaceful return of Hong Kong and Macau from foreign control.

Jiang Zemin

Beginning in 1990, Jiang Zemin served in the highest positions of the Chinese government. During his tenures as President of the People's Republic of China, the General Secretary for the CPC, and Chair of the CPC and PRC Military Commissions, Jiang was oversaw the continued implementation of economic reforms cross the nation.

Though critics are divided in addressing Jiang's personal contributions to Chinese policy and development, the nation was changing rapidly due to the reforms in place. Some say that Jiang's largest contribution to China was stability and adherence to the measures implemented by Deng Xiaoping and his economic reform specialists. Maintaining an average growth rate of 8%, the economy was able to weather even the Asian Financial crisis (ca. 1997), and exceed many global expectations.

Other analysts decree that while China's economic growth was continued during this time period, Jiang and his fellow party members may have failed to address some of the imbalances that grew out of Deng policy. It is further asserted that some of these initial discrepancies have since grown to be major schisms in the Chinese social fabric, and could undermine the developing nation in the future. Economic disparity between the Eastern seaboard, and western provinces, the growing gap between rich and poor segments of society, political corruption, and environmental disregard are now coming under discussion within the CPC and state policy makers. It has yet to be seen what the newest leadership will do to address these problems.

Hu Jintao

Beginning in 2003, the CPC and the PRC began another power transition at its highest levels. Jiang, peacefully stepping out of the Presidency and General Secretary of the CPC, promoted Hu Jintao as the new President of the PRC, and leader of the Communist Party. Some believe that Jiang's intention has been to divert media attention away from himself as social problems come to light within the PRC.

Hu Jintao was able to consolidate the three main power positions of the PRC as of this year; President of the state, General Secretary of the Party, and Chairman of the CPC Military Commission. He is now regarded as the premier political director for the PRC, and speculation abounds concerning the uncertainty still enshrouding China.

Mao's China

After fighting for and against the Kuomintang in the 1930’s and 1940’s Mao and the CPC army finally gained control of the Chinese government in 1949 and began the current regime of the People’s Republic of China. From 1949 until his death in 1976, Mao sat atop the Chinese government, issuing edicts, giving speeches, and bringing about a new vision for the Chinese land, people, and culture.


Though much of his legacy has come under fierce debate by Eastern and Western historians alike, this historical recap will attempt to shy away from these debates as much as possible…for now.


Various political highlights speckle Mao’s tenure as leader of Communist China. Here we will briefly list them and the intentions that drove them. We will also, VERY briefly discuss the impacts of each.


1) The Great Leap Forward

Though this policy implementation is highly regarded as a failure in many regards, it foundation and repercussions should be understood.

Following the first of the five-year plans issued to bring the whole of China into a Communist social order similar to those of the Soviet Union, "The Leap" was intended to develop China's agricultural and industrial sectors in tandem. Collectivization in the rural areas into mega communes consisting of thousands of households, and the redistribution and sometimes complete abolition of privately held land set the scene for such a bold move.

The state called for a doubling of steel production in one year, and took many of the rural agricultural workers from their duties in the fields to build the backyard steel industry. 1958's disastrous crop output was followed by a 3-4 year famine, and for sources for the PRC were very limited. Urban demand for available food channeled available resources away from the rural areas, and resulted in a mass starvation. Resulting starvation led to death tolls that are estimated between 14-40 million.

To further underline the great failure of this project, much of the produced steel was of a low grade and unfit for real industrial growth.

The resulting negative impression of Communism and Mao's leadership abilities led to his withdrawal from the position of State Chairman of the PRC, and the public eye. However, he maintained his position of Chairman of the CPC, and continued to influence the face and direction of the Chinese political topology.

2) The 100 Flowers Campaign

This brief period of encouraged open criticism and opposition to official state policy was initially lauded by the intellectual and peasant classes. However, some consider this campaign as a strategic enticement by Mao and the CPC to uncover center of dissent and possible unrest. Many critics who voiced their discontent found themselves stripped of political rank, and often dispersed to the countryside or executed. It ran concurrent to the Great Leap Forward.

3) The Cultural Revolution

This was Mao's final campaign as the voice of Communism, and the reformation of Chinese society. Officially this set of reforms lasted only from 1966 until 1969, however, many Chinese and Western analysts alike state that the policies and movements propagated by the early stages of the Cultural Revolution would remain intact and widely powerful until the Chairman's death.

Drawing strength from the iconic status that he had culminated during the early part of his political and military career, Mao began to orchestrate a purging of Chinese culture aimed at political ideals and entities that he termed backwards and detrimental. Through the CPC he was able to form a nation-wide organization known as the Red Guard to carry through this final political aims.

The Red Guard, following the edicts and statements of Mao Zedong, violently moved through the intellectual, political, and business sectors, eliminating any voices opposed to Mao's Communist platform. Millions of member strong, The Red Guard stood outside the reach of state police, and, it is argued, outside of the control of anyone save Mao.

Through 1976, The Cultural Revolution effectively silenced all opposition to the CPC, and closely monitored all aspects of culture for anti-communist content. This included the performing arts, literature, mass-media, academia, and party approved documents. These policing efforts were not limited to domestically developed content, but were (and many argue still are) pointed at information coming into the PRC.


Repercussions of the above

The effects of Mao's tenure as State Chair and Chairman of the CPC are still widely felt in much of Chinese society. The ideals he promoted, and restriction of opposing viewpoints are still widely held as positive aspects of China's modern face. The effective dissembly of all political factions opposed to the CPC has left the government in a political monopoly, the effects of which are under heated critical review even today. The deaths of millions, even in a land of billions, still leave penetrating scars.

Positive effects of the Chairman's implementation of policy include national healthcare programs, free education, and a supple social struture that was ready for the various changes that have occured in the past 30 years. High literacy, lower poverty, and an invigorated social spectrum of 1.3 billion people remain testaments to Mao's "Revolutionary" vision.

Finally, the eyes of Mao still watch over the entrance to the forbidden city in the heart of China's political heart.

Warlords, The 2nd Sino-Japanese War, and the rise of the CPC

Warlords, The Second Sino-Japanese War


From 1916 to1936 a number of different power centers struggled with one another over the remnants of the briefly lived Republic of China. The Kuomintang (KMT), upholding the nationalism of it charter, held power in much of the South, while the North Beiyuan government was consumed by internal strife.


The Treaty of Versailles, following World War I, served as an ignition point for the growing dissent within the working classes, students, and small business owners. Dissatisfaction with the Allied Forces treatment of China during wartime reparations, led to a surge in cultural re-evaluation, and created the small but popular Communist Party of China (CPC).
The CCP and the KMT joined forces to attack northwards both militarily and politically. Known as the First Unified Front, this partnership was short lived due to conflicts between secondary agendas. However, despite its short life, the First Unified Front was able to accomplish a new power structure in the North, and begin the stabilization of the region.


A complicated civil war followed the First Unified Front – a war that encompassed the second Sino-Japanese War, WWII, and ended in the People’s Republic of China. This Civil War between the forces of the KMT and the CPC, was as much an ideological battle as it was a militaristic effort, and various foreign powers also contended for the land and people of the China.


The Second Sino-Japanese War became a major turning point for the national direction of China, fusing, though temporarily and superficially, divisions between Nationalism and Communism. These two political and military entities faced a common enemy in ousting the Japanese forces from mainland China, and strategic decisions made by both parties eventually led to the Kuomintang’s defeat by the CPC.


The devastating attacks of Japan’s highly sophisticated armed forces, have left long lasting marks on China’s perception of its Island neighbor. With total casualties being estimated between 20 million and 35 million, property losses at nearly $400 billion (USD, 1937), and nearly 95 million refugees, it remains a vicious scar in the minds of many.


Finally, the National Revolutionary Army of the KMT was so severely diminished during this war, that the Communist Party of China under the leadership of Mao Zedong was able to wrestle away political power and establish the People’s Republic of China in 1949.

For more information on this convoluted time period of Chinese history, the truths and impacts of which are still becoming clear today, please follow some of these links:

Wikipedia: Timeline of China’s History – Modern Period
History of China
China Knowledge
China History Forums

Sun Yat Sen and the Kuomintang

We will preface each of the following sections with a link to the Wikipedia timeline for Modern China. The intricacies and power struggles that surround the building of a unified China under a single governing body have been continuous since the fall of the Qing Dynasty, and understanding that complexity is not something that this blog is intent upon. What we do hope to provide is brief glance at the various power bases (foreign and domestic), ideologies, and governance techniques utilized during the past century.

Sun Yat Sen

Best known for the founding of the Kuomintang nationalist movement, and as the leader of the Xinhai Revolution, Sun Yat Sen was dedicated to bring forth his vision of the new China. Though not single handedly responsible for the orchestration of the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and Imperial rule, Sun Yat Sen is regarded as the figurehead for Chinese Nationalism, and the establishment of the Republic of China.

Sun Yat Sen and with the help of many foreign and domestic Chinese, and foreign citizens (mainly Japanese), began orchestrating uprisings across Southern China as early as 1895. Armed revolution against the Qing and its army, was difficult, and these forces were defeated often. However, even from exile the persistent Sun Yat Sen continued to train and dispatch leaders to communities in mainland China, gather support from foreign sources, and bring Chinese nationals in Malay and Singapore into the nationalist fold.

After many failed attempts, the Wuchang of 1911 was uprising was successful, and within 48 hours from its initiation, the 3 major cities of Wuhan province were under the control of a new political power, and hailing to a new entity -- "The Republic of China." As the South of China slowly began to declare a new form of government, the Qing Dynasty in the North began their campaign to retain what power they could.

Electing their top general, Yuan Shikai, as the Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet, the Qing attempted to solidify their military power, and recoup their losses to the revolutionaries. Shikai had different plans and began secretly negotiating with forces in the South and outside of China to arrange for the peaceful abdication of the Empire.
The Abdication of the Qing Empire was formally carried out in 1912, leaving Yuan Shikai as provisional president over the north of China, Sun Yat Sen remained president of the Southern provincial government until April of that year when he resigned his presidency to Yaun Shikai and established the Republic of China as a unified nation.
The celebrations were short lived, due mainly to Yuan Shikai’s power lust, and the instability that often follows violent revolutions. By 1916 the
“Republic of China” was merely a title as power struggles across the land plunged the nation into turmoil. Governors and their provincial armies began vying for power once Shikai’s dictatorial methods and bid for a new monarchy became clear.
This widespread violence and instability would not end for another 35 years, including the second Sino-Japanese War.

Wikipedia - Early Modern China :
Sun Yat Sen
XinHai Revolution


Richard Hooker’s Work

Enter the 20th Century

So that about neatly wraps up the +4000 year-story of the people and land of the middle kingdom. There are many fighting to make it a neat, clean, and linear progression leading up to the current day. Others struggle to bring light to the unknown periods of turbulence, disunity, and variety buried in the annals of this land's history.

Some would argue that this imperial legacy has had little impact on China's development over the course of the last century. With the end of the dynastic tradition, and the founding of the People's Republic of China, political and social upheaval have resulted in the modern infrastructure. The next week's posts will focus on the transitioning of governance, economy, and social structure in the P.R.C. during the past century.

We will explore events that have molded Chinese policy and opinion, and some of the trends that have been critical in China's rise to the current day. How have policies in international relations and domestic politics helped to mold the unified P.R.C.? Economic reforms have impacted the structure of business, but have they had ramifications in other portions of society (culture, urbanization, etc.)?

What is the new political economy of the 1.? billion people currently inhabiting the P.R.C. and where did it come from during the upheavals of the last 100 years. And furthermore, are there landmarks, pointers or trend lines that can be helpful in our examination of futures possibilities for China and the world.

China's Dynastic History -- Qing Dynasty

The Qing Dynasty



The last dynasty of the Chinese Imperial period, The Qing dynasty was generally a time of sorting and redistributing power amongst the new Manchurian leadership, the last vestiges of the Ming and other Han-Chinese, and vying with the influx of powerful European nations hungry for trade.


Though the Qing rulers were able to hold a succession of power, and establish a quasi-stable form of governance, the constant threat of rebellion and outside invaders pocked the dynasty. Human and material resources were spent on maintaining the region under dynastic rule, resulting in little development, occasional famine, and growing civil unrest.


The European maritime powers of Spain, Britain, Portugal, and others were intent on expanding trade within China. The Qing, on the other hand, repeatedly rebuked offerings and treatises aimed at promoting such trade. Instead, the conservative government declared that outside nations should pay tribute to China. This action provoked the Opium Wars and a series of other conflicts that exposed the under-development of China’s defensive technologies, and forced the nation to open up its reluctant trade routes.


The weakened Qing rulers were no longer able to support the fragile infrastructure they had built, and by the end of the 19th century a number of civil rebellions had taken place. These rebellions eventually succeeded in ending the Qing Dynasty, and with it the Chinese Imperial Era.


Much more information exists about the various artistic and cultural developments of the time, as well as the civil instability that was to account for the formation of the republic system of governance. Please follow the following links to more information, or submit your own suggestions:


Wikipedia Entry
Chinavoc
China History Forum

China's Dynastic History -- Ming Dynasty

Ming Dynasty



Perhaps one of the most famous of all Chinese dynasties, the Ming Dynasty witnessed another shift in the cultural and economic richness. The first long term trade relationships with Europe, a stable system of governance, and a revitalization of internal trade routes helped the Ming Dynasty of flourish.


Due to the increased trade with Europe, the Ming Dynasty saw little in terms of innovative scientific or mathematic work during the period. However, their adoption of European mechanical and hydraulic engineering practices allowed their own development of technologies. Similarly, Western practices in astronomy like the Ptolemaic model and telescope technology further augmented China’s own knowledge base.


The development of gunpowder based military technologies was also a combined effort between the East and West. Multi-stage rockets, land and water mines, and the first hand held cannon’s were all jointly developed by Chinese and European minds. The speed at which these innovations were shared was like nothing else seen in the world to date, which led to gunpowder’s quick adoption around the world as military technology.


Socio-politically, the Ming dynasty witnessed interesting trends in the rise of two of the four major class divisions. The scholar-class was elevated to new positions of power as governors outside of the capital, Nanjing. Governors, elected on the basis of examination results, were given authority to ensure the fulfillment of national policy, as well as the power to instate some local codes. They were also bequeathed with a large amount of wealth for the development of their jurisdiction.


The Merchant class, though traditionally seen as a lower echelon of society in preceding dynasties, saw a fascinating evolution into powerful societal components. Their ability to acquire materials and wealth was relied upon heavily by the Scholarly governors. As merchant’s learned how to levy this power, their influence in regional and even national development became greater. For the first time, historical records began to take notice of their contributions, and the Merchant’s were able to climb into the elite of Chinese society.


Much more information can be found online, and your local library. We highly recommend using BOTH of these resources for a more detailed look at the famous Ming dynasty. Below are some additional links to help get you started:


Wikipedia Entry
University of Southern California: East Asian Library
The Ming Tombs (pdf)
China History Forum

China's Dynastic History -- Yuan Dynasty

Yuan Dynasty



The famous reign of the Mongolian Empire over the land of China marked the first and only time that the civilization was subjugated to foreign rule. As such, some changes were made to the social order of China, beginning with the establishment of a monarchy with Kublai-khan and his successors as supreme ruler. Han governors lost their place of power, changes to the taxation system, and a new caste system were also put in place.


The new social order placed all Mongols as first priority throughout the empire for positions of governance and power. Subsequently, non-Hans from other parts of Asia, were appointed positions to help the Mongol rulers maintain their positions. This dispersion of the Han power base did not stop the development of China, and numerous projects, such as the building of modern day Beijing (then known as Dadu) and an expansion of the agricultural system through irrigation enlargement were seen through.


The expansive Mongol empire, reaching as far s the Middle East and parts of Europe brought a great cultural exchange to Han-China, and opened up the minds of both the East and the West for the sharing of unique sciences and techniques. This cultural exchange, and the Mongols emphasis on scientific and religious education, played a major role in the development of China in the coming Ming Dynasty.


The Yuan Dynasty’s downfall is noted as being the result of internal conflict and power struggles among the Mongol elite. Ousted from Han-China, the Mongol leaders retreated north, and maintained the seal of the Yuan dynasty for another 200+ years. This portion of the “dynasty” is not recognized by most historians, however, it was not until the seal of this dynasty was relinquished that the Qing Dynasty rule would become absolute in 1688.


Further information exists in abundance concerning the Yuan Dynasty and the Mongol rule over China and much of East and Central Asia. Some References include:


Wikipedia Entry
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Minnesota State University – E museum

China's Dynastic History -- Tang Dynasty

Tang Dynasty



Following the harsh, but unifying rule of the Sui Dynsty, the Tang dynasty was to rule for the next 300 years (barring one interruption of 15 years). This dynasty is marked by historians for the cultural richness and development that was made possible by such an extended period of unity.


Trade in goods and culture expanded greatly due tot eh newly constructed Great Canal, which opened up China’s waterways. The “Silk Road,” rich in trade between the Middle East and Central Asia, was also of great importance as Turkish soldiers were heavily recruited into the Chinese ranks. With new influxes of exotic goods, the Chinese social fabric was again inundated with new creative and artistic styles and techniques, further increasing the diversity of the arts.


Though this Dynasty was also to fall to rebellion and social unrest, the hundreds of years of prosperity were to have a lasting effect in many ways. Political reform, especially the unified (if stratified) legal code, was an ideal to be held through the remainder of China’s dynasties. The Tang additionally attempted a national census, using low tax rates as incentive for households to report. Official estimates of the time were approximately 59 million peoples, while many historians speculate that nearly 80 million inhabitants existed by the end of the dynasty.


Further information can be found at the following websites or other sources.


Wikipedia Entry
China History Forum
China.org.cn

China's Dynastic History -- Turbulence, Part II

The Song and Liao Dynasties, and all the king's men



After the Tang dynasty, and very briefly lived Second Zhou Dynsty (690-705AD), China was once again divided into a number of separate regional disputes. Two major powers were to arise and overlap each other in this portion of China’s timeline: the Liao dynasty and the Song Dynasty.


The Song dynasty ruled over the Eastern Seaboard of modern day China proper from the years 960-1279 AD. The Song rulers arose victorious from the ashes of the 5 Dynasties & Ten Kingdoms era, a 53 year long contest for power. Though the Song Dynasty was forced to migrate its capital south, during the later part of its tenure, it was economically healthy, and contained over 60 percent of China’s now mammoth population of over 100 million.


A new economic technology to the world, the banknote, was first introduced by the Song Dynasty. The first paper currency promoted trade both within China and amongst their growing maritime partnerships with Egypt, Japan, Korea, and India. Their naval strength also prompted the building of the world’s first standing navy.



The Liao Dynasty was born from the loss of Chinese influence in the northern provinces due to the internal strife of the Tang, and a regional power structure with closer ties to Khitan heritage lines. Though steppe warriors and peoples were leading the formation of this new dynasty, its territories still contained a number of ethnic Chinese, and subsequently two separate forms of governance and law were applied to its North and South Chancelleries.


There is currently little known about the development of new technologies with a lasting impact from the Liao dynasty. Their tendency to adhere to the mobile and rigorous lifestyles of nomads left little time for innovation. Meanwhile their political system, while intriguing for its ability to assuage both the nomadic Khitan, and the sedentary Chinese, was not be needed in the times to come and was lost.


For more information concerning these two Major Dynasties of the period, or the consortium of smaller dynasties that ushered in or out these two powers, please see the following articles.

Wikipedia Entry – Song Dynasty
Wikipdia Entry – Liao Dynasty
China History Forum

China's Dynastic History -- Turbulence, Part I

Turbulent times for Dynasties and Rulers, Part I



Between the years 220 AD and 618 AD, the leadership over the Chinese peoples changed families over 5 times, and also included eras of heavy dissidence between clans. Aptly named the Three Kingdoms, 16 Dynasties, and Southern and Northern Dynastic periods, the struggle to rule over a single unified Chinese territory proved to be a near impossibility, and the region saw little encompassing peace.


Despite this, there were advances in technology, and a focus on the arts, culture, and religion during these times. Buddhism became very popular, and a wholly Chinese style of Buddhism was created, and Daoism began to flourish. Influencing this rise in Buddhist popularity was the continued migration of peoples into Chinese society and the “sinicization” of these immigrants and their cultures.


The Jin Dynasty survived for nearly 160 years despite heavy internal conflict and external threats. Brief periods of unity were achieved, but the ruling family was forced to migrate its power core more than once during its tenure.


The 16 Dynasties period ran concurrent with the end of the Jin Dynasty and stands as a testament to the struggles rampant in greater China. Many territories were engulfed with strife as warlords and wealthy families vied for power.


These storms settled themselves into the relatively peaceful Northern and Southern Dynasties, which were split along the river basin of the Yangtze. The establishment of the Southern Dynasty marked a new interest in the development of the Chinese culture in southeast Asia. Sources state that only one tenth of China’s then-population made up the populous of the South pointing towards the vast opportunity that lay before the southern emperors.


A number of sources have discussed the importance of this turbulent time period in the shaping of Chinese culture and geographic range of influence. Below are listed some of those sources: with others surely in existence.

China's Dynastic History -- Sui Dynasty

Sui Dynasty



To bring together the dispersed power bases operating between the Han and Tang dynasties required a strict and ruthless ruler. Such a leader was found in Emperor Wen who was able to unify the northern and southern dynasties, and initiate a number of public works projects to build China’s nation. This marks the second time in China’s history in which a very short-lived and harsh dynasty was able to implement policy and projects that would have a long lasting effect on China’s future development.


The Great Canal of China required hundreds of thousands of workers to complete. Stretch nearly 2000 km, and allowing for elevation changes as great as 150 feet, the Grand Canal tied together the trade between Hangzhou and Beijing as well as crossing both the Yangtze and Yellow rivers. This Canal is still in use to this day, and is the longest man built waterway in the world. Continued construction of the Great Wall, and other large scale building projects strained the economy, but provided work for millions.


The demands of the social code and ambitious land projects took their toll on the populous of china, and major uprisings eventually led to its downfall. Though some historians have debated the importance of the Sui dynasty, we include it here as another example of the discipline society and its role in long term national influence.



For more information, please try:


Wikipedia Entry
China History Forum
SACU

China's Dynastic History -- Han Dynasty

Han Dynasty



The Han Dynasty is still considered to be one of the greatest periods of China’s history. Agricultural abundance, internal social and civil peace, and a western expansion in militaristic and mercantile influence allowed the blooming of the newly unified China.


Split into two distinct periods, the Western Han and the Eastern Han Dynasties did share commonalities. The adoption of a Confucian philosophy for political and social governance leant itself to the creation of a dual-bureaucratic system, one central and one local. The central politicians made decisions concerning the appointment of regional governors, however, these local officials were given a high authority in the military, legal, and economic decisions of each sub-prefecture.


Notable Technologies of the Han Dynasty include paper, Steel works, hydro-bellowing systems, advances in agricultural machines, and a host of engineering marvels. The relative peace and harmony of the new unified China, in conjunction with the hugely expanded trade networks allowed for the sharing of goods and ideas across the great Asian continent as never before. A national postal network was formed during this time , only increasing the flow of information. The resulting development of the societies codes, tools, and culture were to leave a resounding mark on Chinese Civilization through even the present day.


For more information concerning the technological developments, social growth, and other advances attributed to the Han Dynasty please refer to the following or additional sites:

Wikipedia Entry
China History Forum

China's Dynastic History -- Zhou Dynasty

Zhou Dynasty (Eastern and Western)

Emerging along the Yellow River, the Zhou Dynasty was the longest in China’s history, stretching from 1122BC to 256 BC. Though the military and political influence of this dynasty was limited to only the period of time known as the Western Zhou (1122-771BC), the succession of rulers continued for another 500 years.

Numerous technologies emerged during this dynasty. A new political technology, known as Fengjian, divided up agricultural land into a geometrical grid, and was governed by a fractal hierarchy of “lords.” This form of land and people management is often compared to the Feudal system of Europe, and was masterminded by the “Duke of Zhou,” the dynasty’s first leader. The agricultural system of the Zhou period was augmeneted by an extension of the hydraulic engineering projects built for irrigation purposes.

This dynasty also saw the peak of Bronze craftsmanship, with many artifacts surviving to the modern day and exemplifying the honed skill of such artisans. Additionally, iron was introduced to China, marking the beginning o f a new age in the use of materials and resources.
A culturally and politically significant “technology” that influenced the dynastic tradition until the early 20th century, The Mandate of Heaven, was also initiated during the Zhou Dynasty. This granted a divine intervention on behalf of the ruling family, and was supported or revoked by such events as rebellion or natural disasters.

More detailed information on the Zhou Dynasty and its well-documented and discussed history can be found at the following and additional sources:

Wikipedia Entry
Republican China
China History Forum

China's Dynastic History -- Shang Dynasty

Shang Dynasty


This dynasty’s beginning is marked by the overthrow of the last Xia ruler a corrupted king according to some sources) by Tang, the leader of the Qin people. Contemporary historians are speculative concerning the range and extent of the Shang rulers sphere of influence in the region that has become China proper. However, written historical documentation in the form of the Oracle bones found at Anyang confirm a succession of leadership based on heritage.
Some historians and archeologists suggest that the Shang dynasty was one of numerous concurrent civil-societies of the time period. Overlap between the Shang, Xia, and other social orders point to a range in technological advances, and cultural development.

These societies each existed during the height of China’s Bronze Age, and numerous artifacts have survived as testaments to the advanced quality of their craftsmanship. Agricultural implements, religious, and artistic creations demonstrate a high level of skill, while few military technologies seem to have been bronze based.


For more information concerning the Shang Dynasty please refer to the following or other references:

Wikipedia Entry
China History Forum
China.Org

China's Dynastic History -- Qin Dynasty

Qin Dynasty

Though this dynastic reign lasted only 12 years, policies and standards implemented were to last for the entirety of the Imperial Period. Under the ruler Qin, a centralized government was established to unify the tribes living in majority of geographic Han China. This government adhered to a Legalist philosophy, which is the stereotypical Disciplined society, in futurist terms—strict legal code governing all behavior and action. Though the political system was not fit to last, and gave way to the Han dynasty quickly, it was important in the standardization of numerous elements of the unified civil society.

The public works projects of this time period were of such a magnitude that necessities in communications, transportation, and resource management required strict coding. The creation of a unified legal code, and written language facilitated trans-regional trade and the coordination of workers and building materials. A unified system of measurement, coined currency, and other universal decrees, made project like the first Great Wall, the Terracotta Army, and a greatly expanded irrigation system possible.

Many of these standards continued in usage for the remainder of the Imperial age, thus providing an interesting glimpse at the ways in which short time periods can have huge and unpredictable effects on the long term development of organizations.

For more information on the Qin Dynasty please research further at these and other sites:

Baltimore City Public Schools
Wikipedia Entry
China History Forum

China's Dynastic History -- Xi'a Dynasty

Xia Dynasty

The Xia Dynasty still draws much debate and discussion from historians interested in the period of Chinese history that gave birth to its civilization. The major importance of this period is the unification that occurred, and the peaceful transition of power and leadership (sometimes through heritage). This five hundred year long period witnessed a number of soft “technologies” that would help to solidify the land of ancient China.

The formation of agrarian societies, as in other societies, led to a number of “radical” transitions for the early Chinese people. Long-term settlements stabilized the social network, allowing for reliable trade. The extensive waterworks built by the founding leader Yu brought relief from annual flooding, and earned the trust and respect from other tribal leaders, thus allowing the stabilization of the network.

Though no written records exist from this period, relics of the period have been left behind for our perusal, most notably the urban remains at Erlitou and Yanshi. While carbon-dating puts these sites and other smaller excavations in the correct time period, debate rages as to the extent of influence that the Xi leaders exerted over the region.


For more information please view some of these articles for in depth research and debates concerning the period.


Wikipedia Entry
National Gallery of Art (USA)
China History Forum (may require a registration to view)

China's Dynastic History -- Creation Stories

A brief Re-cap of China's 5000+ year history:

Creation Myth:
Because the deep social psychology of a people’s is partially formed by the myths and legends that circulate in the vernacular, we discuss below some of the Creation Stories that have evolved in Chinese Society. These Short descriptions are not provided as a final compendium, but another starting place for researchers to better understand China.

China’s various cultures have produced a number of ideas concerning the creation of the world, Earth life, and Chinese Soceity.
1)
P'an ku, Pángǔ – This creation myth is based on the entity Pángǔ, whose growth from the inside of an egg to full size created the heavens and the earth and everything inbetween. Variations exist on a) how Pángǔ was released from the egg, b) how Pángǔ is responsible for holding the earth and the heavens apart and deciding their distance, and c) What happened to Pángǔ after having established “the universe.”
For comparative purposes please refer to these or other web references, and feel free to add more references via the comments tool.
Pángǔ Story 1 - Wikipedia

Pángǔ Story 2 - LivingMyths

Pángǔ Story 3 - ThinkQuest

2)
Taoist Creationism is centered around the concept of a “Oneness” or essential source of the Universe and everything the includes. Through a continual division of “things” all emanating from the Tao, the Universe is created through mythological creatures, or via a rearrangement of “the elements.” Many of these creation stories are a part of the Confucius philosophy.

Chinese Creationism – Wikipedia


This story includes the formation of the supra-being, the Three Pure Ones, the 5 Supremes, and the creation of mankind. However, the wikipedia article is heavily marked for lack of proper referencing (though referencing does seem to be included in the article).

Chinese Creationism – Trivia Library


This version of the Taoist creation story discusses the creation of the universe and all life there in, without the mention of any mythological creatures or beings. This version depicts the universe as being a division of physical elements, and “material-force.”

China’s Dynastic History – Brief Introduction

China’s Dynastic History – Brief Introduction

Chinese civilization has a history that spans nearly 5000 years, and much of this history has been recorded in terms of the different ruling dynasties. Reference sources have divided up Chinese history into various numbers of dynastic periods. The exact number of dynasties is still debated by historians, but this blog will briefly discuss these dynastic periods in 12 distinct groupings.

Each of these sections will briefly outline some of the highlighted cultural and technological developments of the dynasty. It will also provide a short amount of inter dynastic trend theory. This kind of historical trend analysis is generally regarded as “soft futures,” but it may provide a reference in understanding the futures process and the goal of futures work in the present.
Below are the 12 major dynastic periods that will be discussed throughout the month of June on the One World, One Dream. Whose? blog.

Below are listed some of the major periods of China’s Dynastic History.
1) Xia Dynasty (2100-1600 BC)
2) Qin Dynasty (1600-1612BC)
3) Shang Dynasty (1612-1046 BC)
4) Zhou (Eastern and Western) (1122-256 BC)
5) Han Dynasty(221BC-206 AD)
6) Turbulent Period (featuring Jin, Sui, and southern/northern Dynasties)(207-581 AD)
7) Sui Dynasty (581-618AD)
8) Tang (618-907 AD)
9) Second Turbulent Period (including concurrent Liao, Song, Jin and W. Xia dynasties) ( 907-1271AD)
10) Yuan (1271-1368AD)
11) Ming (1368-1644AD)
12) Qing (1644-1911AD)


Archaeological finds across China continue to fuel debate and speculation concerning the origins of Chinese Civilization, and provide us with windows into the fascinating past of China.